Is Random Drug Testing Effective Essay - 684 Words

1. What type of reinforcement schedule does random drug testing represent? Is this type of reinforcement schedule effective or in effective why? a. Type of schedule: The type of reinforcement schedule represented by random drug testing is the variable-interval type of reinforcement schedule. In this type of schedule the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. It basically focuses on the amount of time that is elapsed until somebody is rewarded. In the event of this case study presented, the athletes after being given the drugs are rewarded on the basis of how well they have performed in a game which shows that the reinforcements varies around some average. The random and unexpected testing of the†¦show more content†¦Random testing could also raise the point that it causes interference with one’s own privacy; yet it was a choice they had to make before choosing to play for their team. The best solution to this situation is to rather avoid using every drug, unless they are described on the allowed substances list. 2. Give application of reinforcement schedules in marketing? Schedules of reinforcements are the rule for identifying when and how often reinforcers will be delivered. The basic types of schedules are as following: ïÆ' ¨ continuous and partial reinforcement ïÆ' ¨ fixed and variable ratio ïÆ' ¨ fixed and variable interval schedule These schedules are applicable in everyday lives of individuals. In respect to the application of Reinforcement schedules in marketing, we can find a lot of examples. For instance, with the use of fixed interval schedule, car dealers provide different incentives to the customers when they buy the leftover of the year’s car line in every summer and winter. (Rathus, 2004) An application of the fixed ratio can be of the frequent marketing program that companies carry out. An example of this can be of the JetBlue Airways which is an airline company. What JetBlue is doing that it gives its TrueBlueShow MoreRelatedDrug Testing In Schools. The Topic Of Random Drug Testing1490 Words   |  6 PagesDrug Testing in Schools The topic of random drug testing has been a very controversial one, especially in the last few years. RSDT (random student drug testing) made a rise in popularity after being legalized by the United States Supreme Court in 2006. This ruling made testing students who participate in extracurriculars or drive to school able to be tested for illegal drug abuse. This court decision is like many others in the aspect that some strongly agree and others heavily disagree. One sideRead MoreYouth Gang Prevention Efforts : A Two Pronged Prevention843 Words   |  4 PagesYouth Gang Prevention Efforts A two-pronged prevention approach has proven effective, with primary prevention strategies aimed at the community s general population and secondary prevention strategies targeting youth between the ages of 7 and 14 who are at high risk of joining gangs. Prevention efforts undertaken by law enforcement departments around the country include: â€Å"Participating in community awareness campaigns (e.g. developing public service announcements and poster campaigns). ContactingRead MoreEssay on Random Drug Testing is a Waste of Time1623 Words   |  7 Pageswhat addiction to drugs can do to a young person’s life. Addiction can take away everything that once made that young person happy. The only thing that matters anymore is the drug, getting high, and getting higher. It is a horrible and tragic thing that destroys so many young lives. Some people think that in order to prevent these situations, the best solution is random drug testing. But this is not a reasonable solution whats oever. Many more students are using and selling drugs as they roam aroundRead MoreCase Study â€Å"Professional Sports: Rewarding and Punishment the Same Behavior†1461 Words   |  6 Pagestype of reinforcement schedule does random drug testing represent? Is this type of schedule typically effective or ineffective? Answer: The case study â€Å"Professional sports: Rewarding and punishment the same behavior† was about how in a baseball game steroids are being used and the offense which has been caused by it. The type of reinforcement schedule discuss in this case was the random drug testing which presents the fact that mostRead MoreDrug Testing And The Workplace1394 Words   |  6 Pagesworkplace. The implementation of drug testing by companies grew in recent years. 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At this time there areRead MoreWritten Analysis : Law And Ethics1659 Words   |  7 Pagesobtained a license from the State of Colorado for the use of medical marijuana. The Plaintiff alleged he used the marijuana within the limits of the license under the state constitutional and statutory provisions and never sued it on company property. Testing positive for marijuana is a violation of the defendant antidrug policy. When the Plaintiff tested positive for marijuana, the Defendant fired the Plaintiff. Use of Medical Marijuana The Plaintiff sued the Defendant and asserted four claims. FirstRead MoreStudent Athletes Should Never be Tested for Drugs1282 Words   |  6 PagesRandom drug testing is starting to become more frequent in schools; especially towards student athletes. Schools have been drug testing student athletes since approximately 1995 and in 2002, the court made it a law that high school athletes must be drug tested. 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The use of drug testing to determine aid eligibility would help with the diagnoses and prevention of drug abuse, ensure government aid is reaching those with the greatest need and help strengthen the taxpayer’s confidence in the systems effectiveness. One of the more controversial topics recently being debated by the government is whether or not, anyone applying for or currently receiving government assistance should submit to drug testin g prior to receiving their

Project Cost Assignment - 6235 Words

Cost Estimating Project Cost Management Assignment 1 Introduction The University of Perth has a strong commitment to project management education and seeks to extend this education commitment to the city of Geraldton. The University wants to provide the community of Geraldton with project management knowledge by holding a 3-day conference with representation from the international project management community. This conference will enhance the University’s relationship with the Geraldton community and will showcase their commitment to education within regional Western Australia. The project sponsor for the conference is the University’s Professor Jefferson and he has engaged LC Group Consulting to provide project†¦show more content†¦It is situated on the waterfront overlooking Champion Bay and is located within walking distance to the conference venue – Posh Events and Functions. Along with the ocean views, the hotel boasts high speed and wireless internet access throughout the hotel and is only a few steps away from not only the beach, but restaurants, entertainment and shopping areas. The cost of staying in the Deluxe Balcony Room is $150 per night and our speakers will be staying for a maximum of 4 nights. The cost of accommodation will be listed in the next item for each speaker respectively. (Ocean Centre Hotel 2012) | | 3.0 Day Time ProgramThe daytime program requires three high-profile international keynote speakers – one for each day and the rest of the program is to be filled with local speakers from Perth and surroun ding areas. Each day will have no more than a total of 3 speakers including a Qamp;A session after each presentation from each speaker, to achieve the best conference result. (Meyers 2011)As this will be a 3-day conference, on the 3rd day there will be only 1 speaker, to allow for the wrap up of the conference and guests can explore Geraldton.Each international speaker’s work package consists of fees, travel requirements and accommodation. They will fly economy class and will be transported from the Geraldton airport to the hotel. 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Linguage Free Essays

string(131) " broken promises which created a lot of discontent within he labor leadership party the public felt that it was a betrayal\." Wall Street crush-, it created a split inside the labor leadership so the task would be very difficult. The leader Ramsey MacDonald accepted to form coalition with the conservatives but many others did not accept he seen as traitor he was expelled from the party – the Great Betrayal-. The conservatives in 1931 took part in government. We will write a custom essay sample on Linguage or any similar topic only for you Order Now -Why would the British go to war after what they had lost in the WWW? – Britain was not in favor of going to another war; it found herself involved in the WI unwillingly. The Germans had invaded Poland, so England was in war against Germany â€Å"the People’s War†. In 1940, Churchill became a national coalition government -all parties will Join make a government-. They were fighting a war, all the effort of the country will be directed to winning it. – Why did labor socialists representatives of the working class Join the government? Preparing themselves for after the war. During war time, the NAG put into place a shared â€Å"head† by a liberal member of parliament. The sociologist â€Å"William Henry Beverage† gave the government the â€Å"Beverage Report† of 1942, in order to offer solutions look after what was wrong in the war with Britain. The report started to revive the ideas of the â€Å"Welfare State†, which came as an opposition to what Hitler was promising â€Å"Total Destruction†. Welfare through government intervention was what kept the high spirit of people. The pamphlet became a best seller-hope for a better future-. The report had identified 5 giant evils in the British society which had to be destroyed with the government help: 1- bad living conditions. – Diseases 3- ignorance, illiteracy. 4- Poverty 5- idleness, joblessness. These are the evils that a given society face, combated by the government intervention which explains why the liberate did not like the government o interfere in peoples’ lives. Labor socialists adopted this idea of welfare in 1945 made it part their election progr am because of this labor was elected won the 1945 general election. Armistice was the the signed in the 5 of May 1945; the coalition government kept waited until July 5 , waiting the soldiers to vote for them. The labor had a very large majority of votes â€Å"landslide victory’. The hero that led Britain to victory wins the Dark Hours was Churchill. 2- Re-entering peace time: In order to assess labor achievement we should see the context of time, how was Britain after the war? What was the social, lattice, economic reality of that time? There were deaths â€Å"sass’s†, widows orphans as a negatives social consequence for the country. Britain had to payback huge depths due to the finance in the war, as the country borrowed money from the US, Canada Australia. Britain’s infrastructure was terribly damaged, factories, bridges, in this period she was facing reality. Politically: India, new powers were emerging like the US. 3- Laborer’s achievements: 1- Economic side: 1945, labor government began to nationalize, take into control. E. G. The Bank of England â€Å"the Central Bank†, also it nationalized the coal lines. In 1946, it nationalized the transport industry, civil aviations, ports, airways, energy sifter and gas. Also, in 1948 the iron steel industry with big difficulties. There was resistance from the owners because it was a highly profit making industry. But the coal owners were happy to sell their lines since they already were striving. Labor government nationalized about 20% of the economic sectors; the rest remained in private hands, why? – Labor implemented a social democracy, this 20 % created a debate within the party. The Clause 4: State Ownership of All means, production, exchange, distribution. Keynesian T. M. Keynes: the Theory of the Demand Management. 2- Political side: there were two sides – domestic foreign- : Domestic side: there were no major changes, as the monarchy was not abolished, the House of Lord which was not elected but mainly hereditary. But labor reduced its power in 1949; it could no longer stop a law in the House of Commit, it also lost its power to Veto. Foreign side: Labor Joined NATO: the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which had a big financial cost. At this time, the labor Government embarked on a nuclear program â€Å"Atomic Bomb† as many other countries, despite the opposition of the US to to do so; this cost a lot for the country which is not a productive program in the short term this was while Britain was in need for money, but it has a long term benefits as developing technology; from the military side, it’s a kind of a buy product, the government accepted to withdraw India – the beginning of the end of the British Empires- Social side: the British labor party was a pioneer in introducing the Welfare State. Squirrel had to be fought by offering housing town planning; it was done through encouraging private local authorities building new towns, but there as a shortage of raw materials skill owners. As the need was important, tour blocks or high rise flats. British housing changed because of the urgent need built by the local authorities rented for the people. Result: Labor made the class the division more visible separating the classes which was what they were aviate. Moon 14 December 2009 Social: through legislation, labor defeated the housing problems as well as the other evils, that was in giving employment offers, child allowance for families; education or illiteracy was defeated through the Buckler Act 1944 which is an education act that add secondary education free compulsory from child age 6 to 1 5 for each English child. There also existed private schools -Public- Seven state schools. The evil of unemployment tried to be defeated through nationalization. For diseases or illnesses there was the implementation of a INS National Health Services 1948 made to provide medical care for all; it was free at the beginning but after one or two years people started to pay. Generated by Fixity PDF Creator O Fixity Software Result: There was a sort of broken promises which created a lot of discontent within he labor leadership party the public felt that it was a betrayal. You read "Linguage" in category "Papers" The labor http:// www. Fox-trotted. Com For evaluation only. Deed money that they have taken it from other sources, since the country invested in the nuclear program built many houses, labor was very proud that it has implemented â€Å"the Welfare State† â€Å"State help from Cradle to Grave†, also it meant to be a safety net. These were more significant achievements of the welfare program. Why did it lose in 1951? Labor was obliged to run new elections, there was some infighting inside. There was an internal division betwe en the left, centre right. The labor party was never homogeneous, also the problem of inflation because the Pound Sterling in 1947 was devaluation which created inflation, the cost of ling was very expensive so the public was unhappy. Another reason which created devaluation especially within the middle class was that labor created Rosining!!!! In order to create a sense of equality but it created dissatisfaction among the middle class which usually follows a black market. Wartime: what was promised during the war, in-between the interwar years? Before coming to power – 45- , what was the situation of the country? What the labor did or failed to do? What was the promise? What was the social, political economic reality? Labor party achievement could be asserted through time, what did it achieve? The nuclear program which is debatable made Britain a powerful country, many people were afraid of this program there was going to be a Cold War. Economic side: nationalization, taking into state country. The point is that the British didn’t have the experience of state sectors, now the government was going to manage these sectors, which objectives would be to create Jobs with no competition since state impasses are monopolies, It was no change for workers these state companies are going to be over manning, having more workers than needed, these state companies are going to be lose making, black holes, the alternative would be to give it subsidies SF State Financial Help to rescue them. The state would get the money from taxes causing the big managers to emigrate. So, nationalization was an issue for the future years. The welfare state was created through social policies which interact with the economy which is a political decision. Labor accepted to intervene in people’s life wrought political decision. How is it going to be financed? How do we pay for these services? From tax payers, we have two kinds: direct indirect 1- The working people -income taxes that goes to the Indirect VAT Value Direct Tax TVA, as alcohol tobacco. Sometimes on imports. There are two main ways, of course another source which is the N. I. C National Insurance Contribution. All this will be part of what would be called the Budget that will be given to different ministries each responsible of a sector. Giving this situation, the Welfare State, when you look assess it through mime, you see that what characterizes it is that the middle class would make the most profit of it. Therefore, people from the left right would criticize it. The social policy should be looked from 3 parts: short, long medium term: since it might solve problems TODAY but what about LATER? E. G. Housing has more or less solved problems but later people will have more children who will be unemployed. As far as the health services, we get into problems of term, e. G. Population after the war was in bad shape, but after it started to increase meaning more demand for health care nice medicine is developing as a result, the cost is increasing. Population becomes older so they needed social services e. G. Home for Olds. Therefore, we get into spiral; someone needs to pay for this. Also, concerning education extending school life which is another cost for the country. All of these social costs became known as The Bottomless Sectors. There was always room for improvement. Becoming more more expensive, how was it going to be financed? Should health be only for the people who can pay for it or everybody? Healthy country is more productive as well as education hat creates a wealthy society, but the key is who’s going to finance? A Welfare State will be costly but is it necessary? The private sectors might be performing better because they are paying, but the state sectors are underfeed. It is up to the society to decide what kind of Welfare they want for the country. The Nanny or Milky Cow will be taken advantage from by some people. Dependency culture, scroungers = the 4 January 2010: people living in the back of others. The Welfare States’ help sustain capitalist society. Marxist, believed in Class Struggle. Social policy, it interacts with economy as it has a elation with politics but at the call of it, it’s a social policy because some governors liked it others not because of how it was financed â€Å"taxation†. How much people are going to accept to pay? A social policy can be on a long, short or big or term, the rewards might come later (housing 45/ 54) inhabited by the working class, they had solved a short term problem but later on it created problems, people will pay more more taxes. Marxist believed in the class struggle that without the welfare state the working class would revolve, life as a class struggle that without the Welfare state the t working would revolt; he also criticized the welfare state because the middle class would be the 1 t profit from it. The capitalists, people who believed in the laissez- fairer, self-help, it was for them a question of paying â€Å"the richer you are the more you pay’ because they have their own private sets, they have means to have access to better benefits since they pay. The state sector is under stuffed not highly efficient; it’s never enough this is the dilemma of the welfare states. People of the right criticized the welfare states because it created a dependency culture, it is called the ilk cow and there were many scroungers. The Welfare State is rewarding for society because it can offer a better educated society, after 1945 education was for all, health after that bettered – they lived longer- but with it there is a cost â€Å"Taxes†. Rewarding is costing necessary because without a minimum welfare state, a revolt might happen. As we shall see, the classes were divided but with time there will be an underclass of those who were excluded merged from society; the British have accepted the idea of providing some help. The Welfare State -Milky Cow- can provide milk as long as there is green grass in the entry, I. E. A healthy economy, when you have it, you don’t have a lot of unemployment, the problem is when there are a lot of people out of work, the government will pay for them which will be costly. The problem of taxes is a political decision, are you willing to redistribute the wealth â€Å"make the rich richer or less rich† as we shall see, it’s the wealth of people who has a say. The party’s program says â€Å"promises to spend more†; it’s up to people to decide. The welfare state is a problematic issue. SST Economically: Nationalization, another issue which was 1 implanted by the labor overspent of 45-51 , state took control of some strategic sectors 25% was going to be managed by the state, coal, iron, transport†¦ Through Act Legislation. These sectors were employing large numbers of people e. G. 5 million people in the Coal industry; these large numbers would be represented by the trade union who had a good power. The bosses’ objective was not only to make profit, priority was to provide Jobs because after 1945 it was the time of reconstruction and it needed a full employment. Also, not to forget, the British industries in the mid of 21st Century was coming old as the coal iron equipments needed to be renewed â€Å"invest more money on these equipments†. Moreover, with the pressures of the Trade Union, wages increased the British companies started to become over-manning â€Å"more workers than necessary’, as a result, the return of the Law of Diminution later on -ass’s- inflation -Prices increase-will begin. Http:// www. Fox-trotted. Com For evaluation only. They would get By this loss making, they could reduce workers â€Å"private†, or subsidies, more taxation â€Å"State Financial Help† they would create discontent, closing a state company would be seen as a political suicide. There were monopolies because there was no competition, the quality was not great the prices were low. As a result, The British people would buy foreign products since they are cheaper, there would be more imports a little export, no balance â€Å"the country is going to be in red, it could reduce the value of the currency in order to export† another alternative was to increase taxation or to print money -monkey money instead of Sound money = solid- . This is how the nationalize Sector was going to find itself because it was monopolistic uncompetitive; Britain industry became now as the Lame Duck Industries. Post War Consensus: it is a general agreement, compromise between different members of society, it is not written and is not a law, gathered by different components of society as a result of history (Britain was lucky because it has one dominant language, one religion and has only white people I. E. No ethic groups), Britain’s’ history had played a big role in shaping herself; it became a nation state earning†¦ Monarchy has been there, so there is an agreement on an institutional Monarchy religion is set. Post war was about how to rebuild the country; a house is lilt with Pillars -it was an agreement on pillars-: we are interested in the 4 pillars that England united in wartime on which post-war Britain was going to be reconstructed: 1- The Welfare State, it is the 1942 Beverage Report, well-being of citizens -social side. 2- Government intervention in economy, mixed economy, it is Keynesian through the acceptance of John Keynes theory. – Belonging to NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Western Allies. 4- Trade Unions’ reconciliation with the government; now they are partners they have some power, a 3 parasite: Government, Trade Union and Representatives + Bosses. The post war consensus had gone through different stages; it was introduced and established during war time by the four elements mentioned above. 1945- 1951 the labor maintained the consensus The Thirteen Wast ed Years, 1951-1964: Three concussive conservative prime ministers in government; Winston Churchill. Anthony Eden Harold Macmillan; they did not undo anything they kept the Welfare State because it is a symbol of socialism kept negotiating with the Trade Union. These years were good for Britain; it was the age of affluence- plenty of things- the age of prosperity full employment, he age consumerism, cars, fashion music. The age of cinema, movies, sports leisure; it is the beginning of a permissive society. It is wasted years because labor who planted concoctive who fruit from it. People wanted what was available or provided. The British politicians were divided on the issue of the Suez Canal, in the 1959 general elections the labor party did not use the 1956 humiliation -the war between Britain, France and Israel- because it was for all Britain not only one party but a defeat for Britain. In this stage, the conservatives did not change a lot, their only changed was the prevarication of iron and steel industry because, as we said, during the ass’s and early ass’s there was prosperity and full employment as the youth started to enjoy their life. It was easy to keep consensus, but 1964-1970 is the return of labor, people for some reason were fed up of the conservatives. We can say that consensus is sustain, keep it with some difficulty, the beginning of troubles, Britain started declining the British from different parts started to accept this idea of decline. 1964 labor came to modernize Britain, now there is inflation. Some people ill begin losing Jobs workers want more wages†¦ 1964- 1970: labor party under Harold Wilson, consensus was sustained, difficulties and the British started to speak of crisis and decline. The British economy was prosperous but not as her competitors, Britain began to lose some trade as a result unemployment problems appeared. Britain lived on exports and her competitors were making better and cheaper products. Thus, it lost exporting which led to unemployment later to inflation. Therefore, trade union asked for higher wages leading to strikes in the middle of the ass’s, consequently, trade unions’ reconciliation was no more valid. It had acquired power in favor; this power has become a problem for government, so the Labor Party started to think of reducing T Vs. power, I. . , putting commission led by Baroness to stop the T. V power, the L P at that time wanted more planning of the economy to modernize Britain, it had a control on the economy of Britain. People of money were afraid of the L P government; they became more socialist and started to invest outside what led to a shortage of money. In 1967 labor devalued, I. E. , lost its value in the next ele ction because they lost the support of trade union and some people. Remark: because of the economic problems, the labor government forced to go to the I. M. F -international Monastery Fund- for a loan to ease then through their financial troubles, what meant the adoption of more liberal economic program by the Labor Party. British Decline: Britain after the WI was in reconstruction; it reconstructed itself by providing employment, in the late ass’s and ass’s entered in a period of affluence; people had money in their pocket, Jobs were available, it is an age of affluent society, the age of love and peace, television and music as well as automobiles which became accessible to use. However, in the Middle of the ass’s, people started to speak about the sick man of Europe. They discovered that their economy did not grow as its competitors, Japan, Germany, USA and France who were doing better. Also this sick man was characterized by the rise of SST inflation, of course, we are dealing with the 1 industrial nation and we compare it when Britain was a vast Empire, where Britain was the workshop of the world described by the bygone age. The acknowledgment of this loss was in the middle of the ass’s because many British refused to accept this new position and they believed hat there was still an empire after the WI, but the loss of the Jewel of the Crown – India- was the best illustration of this loss. The British decline has to be understood as a loss of power, spread of crisis, troubles and disorder. The most unarguable fact is that the seeds of Britain’s decline are seen mostly in all fields and in particular political and economic ones that eventually led to the deterioration of its position. Causes and consequences of the British Decline: As far as the causes are concerned, we have two perceptions, we have the LEFT POINT OF VIEW that supported the State interference and socialist communism planning, and we have the RIGHT POINT that had its own argument. Concerning the left point, they thought that the decline had roots in the Victorian Britain where we find society of contrast paradoxes; there were also political, economic and social causes. Beginning with the political causes, in fact one of the most disappointing causes that Britain endured is the effects of two world wars which diminished its role as a world power. Though Britain’s decline during the troubled years was arrested; it constructed her economy rapidly often the WI and it remained in late sass’s an extremely rich country but the heavy costs of the war and the millions causalities weakened her capacity to maintain the vast empire. Another feature to this decline in world power was the loss of some territories e. G. India (with the rise of colonial nationalism) which was one of the most important components of the British empire since it was its largest source of revenue. Thus the loss of India meant the beginning of the end of the British Empire. N.B.: the end of the British rule in Ireland had also been a negative effect on Britain rower. Moreover, the Empire did not really benefit Britain; in fact, it was made by industrialists and traders who exclusively benefited from it. Also, in case of a problem the beneficiaries were the few and the expanses of the problem come from tax payers, the best example is the Ireland problem, also because they had two party systems: the liberals and the conservatives. Nevertheless, the most striking point was when the left stressed its criticism on the Laissez-fairer ideology which had a sense of paradoxes; it was advocated in Britain and in its colonies people were not free. How to cite Linguage, Papers

Weekly Impact Statement for Five Key Points -myassignmenthelp

Question: Write about theWeekly Impact Statement for Five Key Points. Answer: The business environment is full of risks and uncertainties. With the improvement in information technology, the level of risks has increased in the modern environment. Particularly, the issue of cyber-attack is one of the key concerns to the management of organizations. However, after reading these two articles, it is evident that enterprise risk management is not a simple task as most people think. The five resilient points noted from these two articles are related to the complex nature of enterprise risk management. Firstly, enterprise risk management is a process, not an event or an action. According to George (2013), enterprise risk management should be a continuous process which is monitored both from the internal and external environment of businesses. This view is also supported by COSO (2004) who posits that risk management must be integrated into to the firm's purpose, mission, and vision. This argument is crucial because it makes organizations to be always prepared for any occurrences. Secondly, enterprise risk management is a collaborative process. Despite the senior management being mandated with the task of assessing, evaluating and preventing risks and uncertainties, they are supposed to collaborate with other industry players. This point is vital because it insists on the collaborative nature of management in addressing risk and uncertainties. Thirdly, it is evident from the articles that to comply with the available risk management regulations does not imply that an organization is safe. Risk management is an active process which cannot be defined by laws. In this respect, management should be actively be involved in minimizing risks. In fact, risks are not static and need new strategies for their suppression every time. Additionally, it is evident that enterprise risk management is tied to a firms profitability. As George (2013) points out, risks can affect the efficiency of business operations. In this respect, it is vital for enterprises to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of their risk management measures and their effectiveness. This opinion is essential in amalgamating business operations with risk management measures. Remember, the role of a business is to create value for its owners. However, this value cannot be attained without suppressing risks. Finally, it is apparent from the articles that effective communication is key in enterprise risk management. Each industry and enterprise face unique risks. However, there are common risks like cyber-attacks. In this case, communicating and consulting with experts and industry players about a risk can aid significantly in eradicating it. This view retaliates on the argument that risk management is a collective action. In fact, this point is vital in enhancing networking in the management and business world. Critical Questions The articles focus more on the role of management in enterprise risk management. However, what is that role of the government or its institution in enterprise risk management apart from policy implementation and enforcement? According to the articles, the management shoulders much of the blame when there are poor risk management strategies resulting in a data breach. However, they also maintain that risks and uncertainties are not static. In this case, which is the best way to ascertain who is to blame in case of a data breach? Reference List COSO, 2004. Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework. S.l.: The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission. George, T., 2013. Risk and ComplianceFor Better or Worse?. ISACA JOURNAL, Volume 4, pp. 1-4.

Watergate Essays (2054 words) - Watergate Scandal, L. Patrick Gray

Watergate WATERGATE Sex, drugs, money, power, you name it and there is a scandal for it, but look back and you will see that from all the scandals there have been, Watergate was among the worst. The Watergate scandal had everything. From Nixon disgracing the presidency by lying to the country and abusing his power, to his committees being involved in illegal acts and a big cover up. All leading to little side roads of corruption and lies. Watergate is by far one of the worst presidential scandals in the history of the United States. In the story of Watergate, five burglars were found breaking into democratic offices at the Watergate complex in Washington DC. The break-in was passed off as just another burglary, but when the burglars were found to have connections with the CIA, questions were starting to be asked. Then when the phone number of Howard Hunt was found in one of the burglars phone books, it made people think, Why would one of the burglars have the phone number of one of the presidents men? Then there is Richard Nixon, the man of the hour, plays the role of the president of the United States of America. The man that was voted into office by the people, and the man that swore to serve the people. When Watergate was uncovered, it revealed that the president was a liar and a cheat. The president lied to our country, lied about his involvement, concealed self incriminating evidence, abused his power, and planed to have the CIA stop the FBI investigations. He was also deeply involved with the cover up and still lied about his involvement. During the times of the unraveling of Watergate, questions were asked about connections with the White House and the president, but when the president was asked about it at a press conference he assured Americans that The White House has no involvement whatever in this particular incident. He was lying to the country like it was part of his job (Dorman 158). The lying did not end there, it went on and on for months, and as the scandal kept unraveling, President Nixon and White House, and creep officials were deliberately misleading the public about the significance of the Watergate affair (158). As Watergate was becoming a front-page article in the newspapers, new evidence was being uncovered. One piece of evidence that changed the peoples ideas of our president was the tapping of every conversation in the oval office since about the 18th month of president Nixon's term (Kutler 368). Those tapes would soon prove that the president was deeply involved in the scandal. During the trials, the Nixon administration claimed that the March 21st, 1973 meeting was the first Nixon had heard of the cover-ups, but after the tapes were heard it was discovered that Nixon was involved from the beginning (Heritage 36). The Nixon tapes brought out much controversy. The tapes alone could prove the president innocent or guilty, whichever one it was, Nixon refused to hand over the tapes. the courts then demanded the tapes, and Nixon still would not give them up. After much struggle Nixon agreed to give a transcript of the tapes. The transcripts brought to light a significant amount of evidence against Nixon. The transcripts revealed payoffs, affiliation with the burglaries, and the OK's to the cover-up, But most important the transcripts showed that Nixon had lied repeatedly after he had denied knowing anything about the conspiracy (27). After much struggle, the courts finally got the tapes from Nixon, It was Archibald Cox that issued the subpoena for the tapes, and that started the bloodbath we now know as the Saturday night massacre. The night of October 20,1973, possibly the most tumultuous in American political history, when the special Watergate prosecutor and the nations two top law officers lost their jobs within the space of an hour and a half. (Heritage 38). Soon the country would find a new problem with the tapes. When the presidents lawyers were going over the tapes, they came along an 18 minute gap during a conversation with Nixon and Haldman (34). Three weeks later, the gap was discovered, Rosemary Woods (Nixon's secretary) testified that while transcribing the tape, she had accidentally erased perhaps five minutes when interrupted by a phone call, she said she had pressed the 'Record' button instead of the 'Stop' button and then kept her foot on the machines control pedal while speaking into the phone. (34) Not everyone accepted this explanation; The maneuver would have been difficult

Game of Life (LOF) symbolise essays

Game of Life (LOF) symbolise essays I once saw a movie about a man and his wife. They were stranded on a desert island. Together, alone, full moon and stars everywhere. Sounds romantic right? Wrong, no cooked food, fruit everyday, no hope for rescue or anyway to let anyone know where they were. Not so romantic, just deadly. Now, put a bunch of young kids on an island. Alone, no responsibility, no rules, sounds like fun and games. This game turns into the game of their life. It doesnt turn out very well for anyone but without Piggys glasses it is the last game any of these boys will ever play. In William Goldings Lord of the Flies Piggys glasses are a symbol of hope for rescue because they provide fire for survival, the smoke signal and represent Piggys insight. On area the glasses symbolize rescue is they make the fire so the boys can develop a smoke signal for passing ships to see. The boys have no radios, there arent any cell phones, and they have no way to inform the rest of the world of their position on this huge planet. Then it hits them, We can help them find us. If a ship comes near the island they may not notice us. So we must make smoke on top of the mountain. We must make a fire. (38) This is the first great idea they have to use Piggys glasses. Ralph understands the importance of keeping the fire going. He knows the importance of a smoke signal. Jack lets the fire go out while hunting, and Ralph gets very angry. There was a ship out there... They might have seen us. We might have gone home. You and your blood Jack Merridew! You and your hunting! (70) Without the smoke signal they never will be rescued, but thanks to Piggys glasses, some quick thinking, and a lot of luck, they are. A second area the glasses give hope is they provide the fire needed for survival. They need it to cook their food. If they have to be there for a long period of time they will be able f ...

Fulminating Hepatitis B secondary to a lifetime use of IV drug abuse Research Paper

Fulminating Hepatitis B secondary to a lifetime use of IV drug abuse - Research Paper Example This helps in identifying the initial treatment, as well as eliminating all contraindications to liver transplant. In addition, conducting proper prognosis helps in identifying patients who need a transplant and those who will survive without a liver transplant. Symptoms presented by fulminant hepatitis B require immediate medical interventions to prevent further damage on liver cells. However, in some patients, the condition is asymptomatic, which makes it difficult to detect. Patients of such nature may spread the condition to others unknowingly (Vandevante et al, 2011). Hepatitis B virus This paper looks into a case of a 51 year old patient suffering from fulminating Hepatitis B as a result of prolonged intravenous drug abuse. The fulminant condition under consideration is as a result of hepatitis B virus. Currently, hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the leading cause of fulminant hepatitis compared to other viral hepatitis. Hepatitis B virus attacks and replicates within hepatocytes. In terms of structure, hepatitis B virus has an outer shell and an inner core. The inner core bares the viral DNA, enzymes and proteins including hepatitis B virus core antigen (HBcAg) and HBVe antigen (HBeAg). The outer shell has the hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HbsAg), which is produced in excess by hepatocytes replicating the hepatitis B virus. ... In cases of acute HBV, a bigger number of viral DNA is cleared from liver cells through a non-cytocidal process caused by inflammatory byproducts derived from CD8+ T lymphocytes. The release of inflammatory products occurs once CD+ T cells are stimulated by interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alfa, which are products of CD4+ T cells (Gish, 2009). The inflammatory byproducts lead to down regulation of viral replication as well as triggering direct lysis of infected liver cells. The destruction of infected hepatocytes through lysis occurs due to action of HBV specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. Major destruction of hepatocytes in fulminant viral hepatitis is also as a result of host immune factors. HumoralAb response in fulminant hepatitis B is usually enhanced (Gish, 2009). This leads to an increased rate of HBsAG clearance from the liver. High level of anti-HBsAb is evident in patients with fulminant hepatitis B on admission. Fulminating hepatitis B may either be hyperacute, acut e, and subacute. In hyperacute, features present include encephalopathy within 7 days after the appearance of jaundice, and an increased rate of getting cerebral oedema (Aspinal at al., 2011). Acute condition presents itself with jaundice to encephalopathy within8-28 days and a high risk of cerebral oedema. In subacutecondition, development of jaundice to encephalopathy may occur within 5-26 wks, and there is a minimal risk of cerebral oedema. Main clinical features in fulminating hepatitis B include encephalopathy, jaundice, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The liver may appear enlarged during the initial stages, but later reduces in size. Other conditions include cerebral oedema, renal failure, and

2012 Olympic's impact on Sports management in London Essay

2012 Olympic's impact on Sports management in London - Essay Example Hence, Tennis Wimbledon Tournament or Football League Championship is mega-event known all over the world, which attracts millions of viewers. Also today there is no grown-up person who is not aware what the word â€Å"Olympics† means and who has not watched the greatest international complex sport competitions on television at least once. It is well-known that the famous symbol of Olympics, five colorful rings, can be identified by more than ninety per cent of planet’s population. This exceeds the recognition of such extremely popularized brands as Nike, Coca-Cola and McDonalds (Vigor, Mean, Tims 2004, pp. 4). Even in a far antiquity Olympic Games were the main sport event of all the times and nations. During the period of Olympics peace and consent were proclaimed on the Earth. The wars stopped and all dignified athletes competed in a fair fight for the top ranking. Olympic movement managed to overcome a lot of impediments, among which were: interruptions by World War s, attacks of terrorists, including bombing, kidnapping of sportsmen, murders, boycotts, and various diplomatic incidents. However, the Great Games have survived and currently take place every forth year, with interchange of summer and winter games with a difference of two years. Nowadays Olympics are spread on a large scale, being equipped with the latest techniques and recorded by numerous computers and cameras for defining the final results of the sportsmen with a high accuracy. Lately the cities that organize Olympics become the capitals of the world for the period of games holding. The place of the consecutive Games is announced beforehand for giving at least seven years to the country to get itself ready. Hence, London has been officially chosen for the Olympics 2012 on the sixth of July 2005, leaving behind such serious rivals as Paris, Moscow, New-York and

Christian Afterlife Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Christian Afterlife - Essay Example ok in the communication between God and people according to the Christian faith, the New Testament (with concentration on Paul) gives a clear vision of the life of Christians as that which already takes part in the realities of heaven. Such Christian life is to be put into experience only after the return of Jesus Christ as well as the resurrection of human bodies. On the other hand, the Old Testament book in the bible, (Note that the Bible usually is divided into two testaments- the New and the Old) shows the images of afterlife less vividly in comparison with the New Testament. As a matter of fact, the image of afterlife in the Old Testament is only developed in a modest manner. Thus, the Old Testament, instead of concentrating on the issue of afterlife, gives a wide focus on the care that God offers to people in the context of earthly bestowments like offspring and land. It also touches on the punishment of God to the people such as the Israelites who were not faithful as well as the pagan nations in the form of death or exile. Christians, though, view the Old Testament as promising afterlife to God’s people. For instance, there is the part in the Old Testament that talks about the promises to Abraham by God in terms of offspring/land as symbolic to his afterlife blessing. This is due to the fact that the promises given by God to Abraham were not really experienced until a long time subsequent to his demise. This sense is fully expounded upon once one reads the New Testament of the Bible. (Ryken, et al, 1998 pp16,17) Those beliefs that Christians uphold are put in what is called Creeds. There are two majorly essential creeds according to the Christianity religion and these are the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. They (Christians) only believe that there exists only a single God, and his nature is that of Love and relationship. God’s nature is vividly expressed in the Trinity belief for majority Christians and that these are three persons by the names

Investigating Alykl Hydoxylation in P450-can Using EVB

Investigating Alykl Hydoxylation in P450-can Using EVB Shen Ye Abstract Cytochrome P450s are a superfamily of haemoproteins1-3 which catalyse the oxidation of organic molecules4. One P450 enzyme studied for its hydroxylation mechanism is P450cam (CYP101) from the Pseudomonas putida bacteria, whose crystal structure (1DZ9) was solved by Schlichting et al.5. The active form of P450cam contains an oxyferryl species known as compound I(CPDI), where the iron has a formal oxidation state of Fe(V) 6, 7 in the plane of a porphyrin ring with a protruding oxygen atom. This oxygen atom is a tremendously potent oxidising agent and can readily abstract a hydrogen of a C-H bond from non-activated hydrocarbons with potentially high regioselectivity[REF]. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank: Patrick von Glehn Dr Richard Lonsdale Professor Adrian Mulholland Professor Jeremy Harvey Professor Neil Allan Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents Part I – Literature Review An introduction to haem oxygenases Cytochrome P450 enzymes P450 catalytic cycle P450cam An introduction to CHARMM and EVB Part II Methodology Part I – Literature Review An introduction to haem oxygenases After hydrogen and helium, oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe8 and makes up 20.9% of Earth’s atmosphere9. Oxygen accounts for 65% of the mass in humans8 as it is found in all biological systems including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and water. Oxygen occurs in the atmosphere as dioxygen, with a triple ground state where the two unpaired electrons are occupying two degenerate molecular orbitals10. This makes incorporating atmospheric oxygen into organic molecules (predominantly singlet species) extremely difficult as it would be a spin forbidden process. Haem oxygenases are enzymes containing a prosthetic haem cofactor, an iron atom held by a porphyrin ring. Haem B is the most common prosthetic haem group, consisting of a protoporphyrin IX ring bound to the iron. It is most commonly found in the human body inside haemoglobin and myoglobin11, playing a major role when it comes to binding atmospheric dioxygen. There are two groups of haem oxygenases, monooxygenases and dioxygenases, one reacts using a single oxygen atom and the other using both oxygen atoms. The haem B cofactor and the apoenzyme are synthesised separately in different parts of a cell and they are connected via ligation to the iron atom on the proximal face12. The protoporphyrin ring is a tetrapyrrole macrocycle synthesised from basic biological precursors including succinyl CoA and the most basic amino acid, glycine13. Ferrochelatase coordinates the iron atom to the protoporphyrin, producing haem B14. In cytochrome P450 enzyme the iron is ligated to a proximal cysteine residue via the sulphur atom15, however in some other oxygenases and other haemoproteins such as haemoglobin and myoglobin the iron is coordinated to a proximal histidine residue16. In monooxygenases one of the dioxygen atoms is converted to H2O and the other is commonly inserted into an aliphatic position of the substrate, producing a hydroxyl group by oxidation of reducing agents such as NADH and NAD(P)H17, 18. The most studied haem-containing monooxygenases are the superfamily of cytochrome P450 enzymes due to their large diversity and versatility19, 20. Cytochrome P450 enzymes Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) were first discovered by Axelrod21 and Brodie et al.22 in 1955 when they observed the oxidation of xenobiotic compounds in the endoplasmic reticulum of the liver, but the enzymes responsible were still unknown until 1962. Klingenberg23 and Garfinkel24 found a carbon monoxide binding pigment in the rat and pig livers, respectively, which had an absorption maximum at 450 nm. The CO molecule was bound to the centre of the haem and its 450 nm absorption maximum25 is prevalent in all CYPs26-28, an electron spin resonance spectrum identified this enzyme was a low spin haemoprotein29. This 450 nm Soret peak is the origin of the name P450. The superfamily of CYPs contain over a thousand haem monooxygenases30 and are present in nearly all living organisms and even viruses, a well-known exception is Escherichia coli4, 19 which is widely used to investigate CYPs by sequence insertion into plasmids and allow the E. coli to express the genes31, 32. CYPs typically con tain approximately 500 amino acids, the cysteine residue which ligates to the haem group is located near the carboxy-terminus and the amino-terminus region of CYPs are rich in hydrophobic residues and is believed to be responsible for binding the enzymes to the lipid bilayers of cells33. CYPs in mammals are a crucial part of catalysing the metabolism of organic compounds and the biosynthesis of steroid hormones34, such as oestrogen and testosterone, and are able to perform hydroxylation, epoxidations and other oxidation reactions at physiological temperatures35 extremely selectively. Such reactions when performed uncatalysed tend to require extremely high temperatures5. CYPs are tremendously versatile, they’re able to catalyse a wide range of foreign hydrophobic compounds, which helps to protect the organism if they have ingested potentially harmful substances including toxins and carcinogens36. This ability is often called â€Å"xenobiotic metabolism†37. There is a system for the nomenclature of P450 enzymes, which is â€Å"CYP† followed by a number, a latter and another number, e.g. CYP2J2. The first number relates to the family of the CYP, where all the CYPs in the family share a sequence identity of 40% or greater. The letter afterwards corresponds to the subfamily, where the CYPs in the subfamily share a sequence identity of 55% of greater. The final number is a label where all CYPs with this label share a sequence identity of 97% or greater38. CYPs with the same label are known as isoforms. Humans have 57 different CYP isoforms divided into 18 families and 42 subfamilies34. Most of the isoforms are found on membranes, including the inner membrane of mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum and the cell membrane. They all differ in roles but the processes they all catalyse are similar and a few are crucial for catalysing more than once process. For example CYP 17A1 is located in the endoplasmic reticulum and is shown to be both a hydrolase and lyase, a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of steroids including oestrogens and progestins39. The most researched area of CYPs is the drug metabolising CYPs in the human hepatic system such as 3A440, 2C941, 2D642, 2E143, 1A2 and 2C1944. These CYPs are responsible for the xenobiotic metabolism against infested foreign compounds, breaking them down into more readily soluble products to aid excretion through the urinary system45. For this reason, a good understanding of the metabolic pathway of organic molecules inside the body al lows drug development to invent new methods of bioactivation of inert but bioavailable forms of an active compound, where the ingested compound is inactive but gets metabolised into the active form inside the body. The versatility of CYPs can sometimes cause unexpected side-effects in metabolising pharmaceutical drugs, for example some bioactive compounds in grapefruit juice have been found to inhibit CYP catalysed metabolism of certain cardiovascular drugs, causing an increased blood concentration of the bioactive drug, thus leaking to a risk of overdose46, 47. P450cam P450cam was the first CYP to have its three-dimensional structure determined. It displays a high region- and stereoselectivity when catalysing the hydroxylation of camphor, only the exo-hydroxyl at C5 position is produced. Despite the extensive research into P450s, there are still certain details of the mechanism which are not fully understood. References 1.T.K. D. R. Nelson, D. J. Waxman, F. P. Guengerich, R. W. Estabrook, R. Feyereisen, F. J. Gonzales, M. J. Coon, I. C. Gunsalus, O. Gotoh, K. Okuda and D. W. Nebert DNA Cell Biol, 1993. 12(1): p. 1-51. 2.C. Loannides and D. Parke, Drug metabolism reviews, 1990. 22(1): p. 1-85. 3.A. Altun, S. Shaik, and W. Thiel, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2007. 129(29): p. 8978-8987. 4.P. Danielson, Current drug metabolism, 2002. 3(6): p. 561-597. 5.I. Schlichting, J. Berendzen, K. Chu, A.M. Stock, S.A. Maves, D.E. Benson, R.M. Sweet, D. Ringe, G.A. Petsko, and S.G. Sligar, Science, 2000. 287(5458): p. 1615-1622. 6.D. Dolphin, A. Forman, D. Borg, J. Fajer, and R. Felton, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1971. 68(3): p. 614-618. 7.J.E. Penner-Hahn, K. Smith Eble, T.J. McMurry, M. Renner, A.L. Balch, J.T. Groves, J.H. Dawson, and K.O. Hodgson, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1986. 108(24): p. 7819-7825. 8.R. Chang, Chemistry. 9th Edition ed. 2007: McGraw-Hill. 9.A. Murphy, Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing, 1995. 15(2): p. 279-307. 10.T.F. Slater, Free radical mechanisms in tissue injury, in Cell Function and Disease. 1988, Springer. p. 209-218. 11.A.R. Fanelu, E. Antonini, and A. Caputo, Advances In Protein Chemistry, 1964. 19: p. 73. 12.H.S. Marver, D.P. Tschudy, M.G. Perlroth, and A. Collins, Science, 1966. 154(3748): p. 501-503. 13.F.J. Leeper, Natural Products Reports, 1983. 19: p. 1137-1161. 14.T. Yoon and J. Cowan, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2004. 279(25): p. 25943-25946. 15.A.W. Munro, D.G. Leys, K.J. McLean, K.R. Marshall, T.W. Ost, S. Daff, C.S. Miles, S.K. Chapman, D.A. Lysek, and C.C. Moser, Trends in biochemical sciences, 2002. 27(5): p. 250-257. 16.D.F. Brook and P.J. Large, European Journal of Biochemistry, 1975. 55(3): p. 601-609. 17.M.H.M. Eppink, C. Bunthof, H.A. Schreuder, and W.J.H. van Berkel, FEBS Letters, 1999. 443(3): p. 251-255. 18.S. Harayama, M. Kok, and E.L. Neidle, Annual Review of Microbiology, 1992. 46(1): p. 565-601. 19.A. Sigel, H. Sigel, and R.K. Sigel, The ubiquitous roles of cytochrome P450 proteins: metal ions in life sciences. Vol. 10. 2007: John Wiley Sons. 20.P.R.O. De Montellano, Cytochrome P450: structure, mechanism, and biochemistry. 2005: Springer. 21.J. Axelrod, Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1956. 117(3): p. 322-330. 22.B.B. Brodie, J. Axelrod, J.R. Cooper, L. Gaudette, B.N. La Du, C. Mitoma, and S. Udenfriend, Science, 1955. 121(3147): p. 603-604. 23.M. Klingenberg, Archives of biochemistry and biophysics, 1958. 75(2): p. 376-386. 24.D. Garfinkel, Archives of biochemistry and biophysics, 1958. 77(2): p. 493-509. 25.R.W. Estabrook, D.Y. Cooper, and O. Rosenthal, Biochemische Zeitschrift, 1962. 338: p. 741-755. 26.T. Omura and R. Sato, J. Biol. Chem., 1962. 237: p. 1375-1376. 27.T. Omura and R. Sato, J. Biol. Chem., 1964. 239: p. 2370-2378. 28.T. Omura and R. Sato, J. Biol. Chem., 1964. 239: p. 2379-2385. 29.Y. Hashimoto, T. Yamano, and H. Mason, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1962. 237(12): p. PC3843-PC3844. 30.B. ÄŒreÃ… ¡nar and Ã…  . PetriÄ , Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Proteins and Proteomics, 2011. 1814(1): p. 29-35. 31.E.M.J. Gillam, Z.Y. Guo, and F.P. Guengerich, Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 1994. 312(1): p. 59-66. 32.A. Parikh, E.M. Gillam, and F.P. Guengerich, Nature biotechnology, 1997. 15(8): p. 784-788. 33.J.A. Hasler, R. Estabrook, M. Murray, I. Pikuleva, M. Waterman, J. Capdevila, V. Holla, C. Helvig, J.R. Falck, and G. Farrell, Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 1999. 20(1): p. 1-137. 34.D.W. Nebert and D.W. Russell, The Lancet, 2002. 360(9340): p. 1155-1162. 35.D. Harris, G. Loew, and L. Waskell, Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 2001. 83(4): p. 309-318. 36.P. Anzenbacher and E. Anzenbacherova, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS, 2001. 58(5-6): p. 737-747. 37.X. Ding and L.S. Kaminsky, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology, 2003. 43(1): p. 149-173. 38.R. Lonsdale, Cytochrome P450 Reactivity and Specificity from QM/MM Modelling, 2009, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol. 39.R. Zuber, E. Anzenbacherova, and P. Anzenbacher, Journal of cellular and molecular medicine, 2002. 6(2): p. 189-198. 40.J.S. Markowitz, J.L. Donovan, C.L. DeVane, R.M. Taylor, Y. Ruan, J.-S. Wang, and K.D. Chavin, Jama, 2003. 290(11): p. 1500-1504. 41.J.O. Miners and D.J. Birkett, British journal of clinical pharmacology, 1998. 45(6): p. 525-538. 42.A. Gaedigk, M. Blum, R. Gaedigk, M. Eichelbaum, and U. Meyer, American journal of human genetics, 1991. 48(5): p. 943. 43.G. Blakey, J. Lockton, J. Perrett, P. Norwood, M. Russell, Z. Aherne, and J. Plume, British journal of clinical pharmacology, 2004. 57(2): p. 162-169. 44.V. Uttamsingh, C. Lu, G. Miwa, and L.-S. Gan, Drug metabolism and disposition, 2005. 33(11): p. 1723-1728. 45.J.F. Rogers, A.N. Nafziger, and J.S. Bertino Jr, The American journal of medicine, 2002. 113(9): p. 746-750. 46.D.G. Bailey and G.K. Dresser, American journal of cardiovascular drugs, 2004. 4(5): p. 281-297. 47.H. Hirashima, N. Uchida, I. Fukazawa, S. Ishigaki, E. Uchida, and H. Yasuhara, Rinsho yakuri/Japanese Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 2006. 37(3): p. 127-133.

Corporate Control :: essays research papers

Title: Corporate Control Author: Annonymous Rating: 0 Rate this Paper It seems that there is an ever-increasing trend in our society. Big corporations are becoming more and more influential in our lives. As they gain more and more muscle in our government they also invade our schools and many other facets of our lives. Perhaps the most disturbing area of potential influence, however, is corporate control of the media. Can the American media uphold its values of free press under pressure from big corporations? Can they continue to present the absolute truth? The simple answer, especially in my opinion, is no. The movie The Insider provides us with an excellent case to back that point of view. Perhaps one of the biggest stories of this decade has been the tobacco industry. We saw them stand before Congress and tell the world that cigarettes were not addictive. The industry was able to â€Å"lawyer† its way out of trouble time and time again. They essentially used legal maneuvers, and certainly money, to keep the truth from the American people. Fin ally, we saw all that come to an end. When Jeff Wigand decided it was time to tell the truth, he put everything he valued at risk. He stood to loose his family, any chance at a job, and quite possibly his life. He knew all these things and still he went on, because he thought he could make a difference. He knew that his testimony would never be heard in a court of law, so where could he turn. The answer: the fourth and fifth estates, or the press and television. Every night millions of Americans sit down and watch the nightly news or read the paper. We know that we will be told all the days news, that we will be educated about what is happening in the world around us. We also know that we will be updated on issues that we care about as individuals and a society. Another delivery mechanism for information is television magazine shows like 60 Minutes. People know that when Mike Wallace talks to them, they should listen. They can also look at his reputation and know that he is telling the truth. Wigand put faith in that fact. Wigand agreed to do an interview with 60 Minutes because he knew that people would listen. He knew that the absolute truth would finally be out in the open, and that it would come from a source that people would believe.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and Validity Reliability and validity are important with any kind of research. Without them research and their results would be useless. This paper will define the types of reliability and validity as well as give examples of each. Both the data collection methods and the data collection instruments used in human services research will also be given. This paper will also look into why it is important to ensure that data collection methods as well as the instruments are reliable and valid. ReliabilityThere are several kinds of reliability used in research. The first kind is the alternate-form reliability. This kind of reliability consists of the degree of relatedness of different forms of the same test. For example, a psychological tests where the questions are changed. The second kind is the internal-consistency reliability. This kind of reliability is the overall degree of relatedness of all items in a test or raters in a judgment study. Internal-consistency is measured between different items on the same test.An example of this would be If a respondent expressed agreement with the statements â€Å"I like to eat frozen chocolate† and â€Å"I’ve enjoyed eating frozen chocolate in the past,† and disagreement with the statement â€Å"I hate frozen chocolate,† this would be indicative of good internal consistency of the test. The third kind is the item-to-item reliability. This kind of reliability is the reliability of any single item on average. An example of this would be the reliability of two items such as a construction worker’s hammers that are identical.The last kind of reliability that I will discuss is the test-retest reliability. This kind of reliability consists of the degree of temporal stability (relatedness) of a measuring instrument or test, or the characteristic it is designed to evaluate, from one administration to another (Rosnow, 2008). Statics. com (n. d). states, â€Å"a group of respondents is t ested for IQ scores: each respondent is tested twice – the two tests are, say, a month apart. Then, the correlation coefficient between two sets of IQ-scores is a reasonable measure of the test-retest reliability of this test. † (Para. ) It is more reliable because the scores are on average between two separate situations. Validity Proving that the results of the research are correct is called validity. Construct validity refers to whether a scale measures or correlates with the theorized method. An example of this is an employer using selection methods to measure the degree to which a possible new employee has psychological traits called constructs. This includes verbal ability, intelligence, mechanical ability, and leadership ability. Content validity is the sampling of the relevant material or content that a test intends to measure.An example would be a typing test for a secretary or a test of checkbook balancing for an accountant. Convergent and discriminant validit y is the grounds established for a construct based on the convergence of related tests or behavior (convergent validity) and the distinctiveness of unrelated tests or behavior (discriminant validity). An example of this Trochim (2006), states â€Å"to show the discriminant validity of a Head Start program, we might gather evidence that shows that the program is not similar to other early childhood programs that don’t label themselves as Head Start programs.Or, to show the discriminant validity of a test of arithmetic skills, we might correlate the scores on our test with scores on tests that of verbal ability, where low correlations would be evidence of discriminant validity. † (Para. 10) Criterion validity is the degree to which a test or questionnaire predicts an outcome based on information from other variables. An example would be high school student’s grades predict his or her success in college. External validity is the generalization of an inferred causal relationship over different people, settings, manipulations (or treatments), and research outcomes.An example would be using a sample from a population. Face validity is a property of a test intended to measure something. It is the validity of a test at face value or the degree to which a test or other instrument â€Å"looks as if† it is measuring something relevant. An example would be if you have a test to measure whether students can read at a fifth grade level, and the people you show it to all agree that it looks like a good test of fifth grade reading ability, the face validity of the test is shown. Internal validity is the soundness of statements about whether one variable is the caused of a particular outcome.An example would be manipulating the variable in a scientific experiment. Statistical-conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. An example would be do ing a study on the relationship between socioeconomic status and attitudes about free health care. Based on the data, it may be concluded that persons with lower economic status tend to be more opposed. Conclusion validity is the degree to which the conclusion reached is credible or believable (Rosnow, 2008). Data Collection Methods in Human ServicesData collections methods include experiments, clinical trials observing and recording and events, obtaining relevant data from management information systems, and administering surveys with closed-ended questions. It is important to ensure these data collection methods are both reliable and valid because if unreliable and invalid data is used the results of the research would be false. Data Collection Methods in Managerial Research Case studies reveal the strengths and weaknesses within the agency. Case studies analyze results of information obtained from cases pertaining to the population served.The cases are also evaluated against othe r case studies to see similarities and discrepancies. Case studies give human service agencies detailed information about the individual and population studied. Performance appraisal systems are used by managers to track employees work performance. It is important for these systems to be reliable to objectively and consistently measure the employee’s performance. All employees activities and result should be measured the same. Without reliability employees would not have faith in his or her manager and the appraisal process.Conclusion Reliability and validity enable human service professionals to use true data and obtain legitimate results. Using these types of reliability and validity allows researchers to provide clients and agencies sound, appropriate conclusions. Using data collection methods managers can improve employee performance and services provided to clients. Reliability and validity ensure accurate data is used in human services research. References Rosnow, R. L. (2008) Beginning Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Primer, Retrieved from

Abigail Williams compared to Adolf Hitler and Joseph McCarthy Essay

Arthur Miller’s character from The Crucible, Abigail Williams, was a beautiful girl who had a hold on people’s lives. She lied to protect herself and caused chaos for everyone in the town of Salem because all of the right people believed her. History repeats itself, and what Abigail has caused and done has been done many times. During our existence, Adolf Hitler and Joseph McCarthy repeated the same sort of chaos as Abigail Williams had done. Adolf Hitler was a German dictator who spread a rumor that Jews were the cause of Germany’s problems, had the power to have them killed, and had six million Jews killed. Hitler could have anything done because he sympathized with the people and had the people and the Nazi army on his side. Just like Abigail did when she spread the rumors of witches and had others back her accusations up; â€Å"MARY WARREN: She sees nothin’! ABIGAIL: She sees nothin’! MARY WARREN: Abby, you mustn’t! ABIGAIL AND ALL THE GIRLS: Abby, you mustn’t!† (1209). Abigail also sympathized with the Church, for the Church was aware of witches and if there was an accusation towards a person most of those people who were accused would die. Saying the names of different people who were supposedly witches would cause their death. Joseph McCarthy was a senator who between 1940 & 1950 made a public accusation that, more than two hundred â€Å"card-carrying† communists had infiltrated the United States government, including the author, Arthur Miller. This caused a heightening of paranoia and a hunt for these people. The hunt was notoriously difficult on writers and entertainers who were called communist sympathizers. The writers and entertainers would get their passports taken away, or jailed, but most importantly the well publicized trials of these artists could destroy their careers when tried as a communist sympathizer. Both of these men had influence on people that caused great chaos in others life similar to what Abigail did in her time. Joseph McCarthy made an accusation that started paranoia and accused many people of being a communist sympathizer, like Abigail did when she said the names of â€Å"Sarah Good†, â€Å"Goody Osburn†, â€Å"Bridget Bishop† (1156), and others who were supposedly witches and who she supposedly saw with the devil and got them killed. Adolf Hitler had about six million Jews killed because he thought it would solve Germany’s problems and bring peace. Abigail had the people in town killed because it would be the solution to get out of Salem unharmed. In all three situations they had people agree with what they said and made it a much more believable to more and more people than what a specific person believed. Adolf Hitler, Joseph McCarthy, and Abigail Williams all had something in common; they had the ability to have many people believe things that were not true and have action to execute that individuals plan. Whether it was to have someone executed, put on trial, or have people believe the malarkey that they were speaking, they all had a chaos that started with Abigail and repeated itself in a different way but same concept.

Critically assess psychological theories of fascism. The WritePass Journal

Critically assess psychological theories of fascism. Introduction Critically assess psychological theories of fascism. IntroductionUniversality of Fascist psychologyBasis of Fascistic psychologyFascist aestheticsFascistic psychology towards peopleFascistic psychology towards work  Bibliography:Related Introduction According to the Oxford dictionary, Fascism is â€Å"an authoritarian and nationalistic right-wing system of government and social organization. In general use extreme right-wing, authoritarian, or intolerant views or practices: this is yet another example of health fascism in action. The term Fascism was first used of the totalitarian right-wing nationalist regime of Mussolini in Italy (1922–43); the regimes of the Nazis in Germany and Franco in Spain. Fascism tends to include a belief in the supremacy of one national or ethnic group, a contempt for democracy, an insistence on obedience to a powerful leader, and a strong demagogic approach†. Geoffrey Gorer (1935:199) noted in 1935: â€Å"Mr Wells thinks that he hates fascism; he is horror-struck as any liberal at its brutality, its barbarism, its philistinism, its illogicality and its narrow nationalism; but he puts all the blame on the last quality; if it was only international, it wouldn’t really be so bad†. It is clear from Gorer’s satire that even as early as 1935, to understand Fascism only as a negative thought process, was rejected and intellectuals   started taking a kinder view of the movement (if it could be called thus?). Many started analysing and assessing its psychological theories, which, precisely, we will endeavour to do in the following essay. Though a critical assessment of these theories is expected, it would suffice to say that a positive view regarding Fascism at the onset will serve our purpose sufficiently, for the ideology has already been seen in a very bad light for the repercussions that it entailed and the miseries the world had to face, in the light of a consolidated fascistic onslaught during the world war II. However, what we shall try and understand is the modern view that Fascistic tendencies have existed in all ages and in all humans universally, and that they found an explosive eruption during an unfortunate period and consequently a set of nations and people had to bear the brunt of being blamed for it. Universality of Fascist psychology So, this understanding of Fascism has now come a long way from the understanding of it as purely a political/mass movement. It was believed that the fascist party â€Å"introduced† fascism by force or by â€Å"political man oeuvre†. Contrary to this, Reich (1946:6) says that his medical experience with individuals from all kinds of social strata, races, nationalities and religions shows that â€Å"fascism† is the only politically organized expression of the average human character structure. Furthermore, it is a character structure which has nothing to do with race, nation or party but which is general and international. In this characterological sense, â€Å"fascism† is the basic emotional attitude of a man in authoritarian society, with its machine civilization and its mechanistic-mystical view of life. It is the mechanistic-mystical character of man in our times which creates fascist parties and not vice versa.† Fascism according to modern sociologists and psychologists, therefore, is not a purely reactionary movement; rather it is a mixture of rebellious emotions and reactionary social ideas. Now if this is true, then we cannot limit fascism specifically to a national character of Germany or Japan. If understood as a mixture of rebellious emotions and reactionary social ideas, it can be considered an international phenomenon, which permeates all organizations of human society in all nations. This means that there could be German, Italian, Spanish, Anglo-Saxon, Jewish and Arabian fascism (Riech, 1946:7) Basis of Fascistic psychology In its pure form, Fascism is the sum total of all irrational reactions of the average human character. Its origins are from the basic human tendencies. In Freudian explanation of the unconscious, the superficial layer in the nature of an average individual consists of that of conscientiousness and compassion. This superficial layer is similar to the biological core of human nature which too is co-operative and love based. But unfortunately, the superficial layer and the biological core are separated from each other by an intermediary layer which makes an individual cruel and sadistic. This intermediary layer is also known as â€Å"secondary impulses† or the unconscious, the anti-social structure in human structure which is the secondary result of the repression of primary biological impulses. As the contact between the â€Å"superficial layer† and the â€Å"biological core† is hard to obtain, what makes appearance is the perverse antisocial layer of the character (viii). Since irrational part of the human nature becomes prominent, both the other layers become subservient to the subversive, irrational tendencies, thus giving birth to prejudices. All prejudices show their origin from irrational part of human character whether they be race prejudices, national prejudices, ethnic prejudices or even, violence. Since Fascism is an emotional outburst whether it be against intolerable social conditions or depravity of any sort, it cannot be understood solely as a political phenomenon. It is a human phenomenon, a psychological-human- phenomena which cannot be tied to a boundary of nationality or race, but that which is universal, pervading the entire world, across all nationalities. And this is very clear from the history of the 20th century that no society has remained untouched from violence or irrational behaviour. In addition, irrational behaviour has played a vital role in human history and has achieved results which have not always been negative. If negative at all, we cannot make fascism harmless if we only look for it in Americans or Germans and we do not look for it in   oneself and the social institutions which hatch him every day (Reich:7). He argues (p.11) Hitlerism is not confined to Germany; it penetrates worker’s organizations and all kinds of liberal and democratic circles. Fascism is not a political party, but a specific Weltanschuung and a specific attitude toward people, toward love and work. So this proves that fascism more than being a political, subversive movement is a part of human psychology, which though a maligned movement has positive elements too. We shall now analyze Fascistic psychology in relation to its aesthetics, people, and work. Fascist aesthetics   The fact that fascism is a psychology also entails that it has a psychology of its own. This psychology of Fascism can be unearthed by understanding its aesthetics. Alan Tansman in (Fall 2008:144-153), analysing Japanese Fascist prose says, â€Å"†¦so captivated, we can still seek to trace the fascist moment by paying attention to form not primarily as embodiments of concepts that need elucidation (though they need that too), but rather as patterns of fascistic feelings that require feelings and unravelling. To trace the movement of fascist aesthetics within or across works would mean to follow it as a style of thought and representation, a style embodied in forms that leave their content behind and have in Henri Focillon’s (1992: 69) words, â€Å"a mobile life in a changing world†. Similarly Starbinski, (1989:116-21), praising another Japanese Yasuda’s work says, â€Å"The uncomfortable truth that Yasuda’s work was more than mere dangerous inci tement, but was also powerful poetry, reminds us that even after we account for the political implications of his language there remains a formal quality that resists both being analysed critically and used politically† . The undeniable aesthetics of the Fascists was similarly emphasized by Tansman ( 2008:146) saying, â€Å"this allows us to see in action Kobayashi’s aesthetics, his evocation of â€Å" fascist moments† that attempted to shut down his reader’s critical intelligence and make self-abnegation, sacrifice and violence feel alluringly beautiful†. These examples of the readings of Japanese fascistic writers reveals that in spite of the fact that these writers were following an agenda, there still remains a subtle aesthetic beauty to be unearthed, understood and appreciated. And this again proves our initial assertion that tendencies of fascistic psychology have been present at all times as we find the same crisis with general literary men too. Fascistic psychology towards people Franklin D. Roosevelt said â€Å"The first truth is that the liberty of a democracy is not safe if the people tolerate the growth of private power to a point where it becomes stronger than their democratic state itself†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Henry Wallace too said â€Å"Still another danger is represented by those who, paying lip service to democracy and the common welfare, in their insatiable greed for money and the power which money gives, do not hesitate surreptitiously to evade the laws designed to safeguard the public from monopolistic extortion. Their final objective toward which all their deceit is directed is to capture political power so that, using the power of the state and the power of the market simultaneously, they may keep the common man in eternal subjection. They claim to be super-patriots, but they would destroy every liberty guaranteed by the Constitution. They are patriotic in time of war because it is to their interest to be so, but in time of peace they follow power and the dollar, wherever that may lead.†Ã‚  This sort of disillusionment caused by democracy sought being redressed by Fascism. Fascism became popular because it could do what liberalism and socialism did not succeed in doing. People have the need to belong to something greater, something superior than themselves. During crisis, the common people crave for unity and purpose of life and this in turn causes them to seek strength and guidance. Fascism provided that. Fascist psychology is the mentality of the subjugate â€Å"little man† who craves authority and he is both a ‘revolutionary’ who believes in rational rebellion against intolerable social conditions and a ‘radical’ for he believes in going to the root’. With this aspe ct in view, we could say that Fascism brought the inferiority instincts of the suppressed human to the core and created an emotional crisis in which the aspirations of common people started being given the due importance. Fascistic psychology towards work Fascism was a wave which brought extreme nationalism into vogue and had national pride and development at its core. The fascists in Italy and Germany wanted to see their countries as super-powers. Therefore the work ethics as outlined by Fascists was hard work. As Corradini tells us that for Italy to become an economic power â€Å"what was required was a marshalling, rationalization, and disciplining of human and natural resources to the tasks such a process would inevitably entail. Sacrifice and discipline were advocated as cardinal virtues for a nation of â€Å"producers† (1924:214-29). National pride in nation building was the mantra. And though being blatantly anti-modern, Mussolini piloting his own aircraft and tooling the Italian hills in his red sports car were public displays of this modernizing temper. The public policies of introducing the work ethic among civil servants, of insistence that the trains run on time, and plans for the development of a modern road syste m were the first overt indications of the character of Fascism’s modernizing disposition (Gregor, 1974:370-384). This work ethic of disciplining and progress according to Volpe (1928) gave a â€Å"massive impulse† to economic development. It was this work ethic in which pauperized masses of workers developed a sharp consciousness of their social situation, and also developed a will to eliminate their social misery. As Reich (1946:16) says, â€Å"It was exactly the pauperized masses who carried Fascism, the ultimate in political reaction, to power†. Here, it would not be impertinent to discuss the Fascistic attitude towards Modernization too. Though generally believed to be anti-modernistic in its approach, in hearkening back to pre-modern ideals and recreating a utopian â€Å"ancient Rome†, Fascism had undeniable modernistic tendencies. Turner (1972:548) conceives of modernization as being a complex process â€Å"involving industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and rationalization†.   These elements which form the crux of what we try to ascertain as modern, though Modernity in itself   is a vague and ambiguous term. However, if these markers enlisted by Turner form the base of being modern, then by that standard, fascists were near moderns. The principal constituents that entered into the coalition that became Fascism-Futurism, Italian Nationalism and Revolutionary National Syndicalism, seem to have all been clearly modernizing in intention (Gregor, 1974:373). All of this conjoined with the Fascist p rograms of urban redevelopment and expansion made Rome, Milan, Turin, and Genoa heavily populated modern industrial and commercial centres. This suggests that Fascism could hardly be conceived as a â€Å"utopian anti-modernism† in intention (Gregor, 1974:377). Maddison (1964) points out that in 1938, using 1913 as a base, the index of aggregate volume of output of Italy had risen to 153.8 compared more than favourably with that of France (109.4), and Germany (149.9). Again using 1913 as a base, the aggregate index for output per man in 1938 stood at 145.2 for Italy, 136.5 for France, 122.4 for Germany, 143.6 for United Kingdom, and 136.0 for the United States. This proves that the Fascist work culture had borne productive fruits and that in spite of the fact that they declared themselves to be anti-Modernism, Fascists were inclined totally towards industrialization, one of the most important and universally accepted tenets of the modernization process. This evaluation of the psychology of the Fascists on a human, personal and socio-economic level leads us to the belief that there was not much wrong with the aggressive policies pursued by the fascists. The problem arose with the execution of those policies and their repercussions thereafter. The only thing that the writer has tried to prove in this paper is that Fascistic tendencies were not something new that had descended suddenly upon the earth, but that they are latent forces locked in all individuals and ages as History has shown. Therefore, to label a set of countries or people as fascists is not warranted. We all are fascists in some way or the other and the need of the hour is to control this fascism in each of us for the furtherance of a more beneficial and humane human psychology.   Bibliography: 1) Reich, Wilhelm. (1946:6) The mass psychology of Fascism: Orgone Institute Press 2) Tansman, Alan. Reading Fascism’s Form. Representations, vol 104. No1 (Fall2008), pp.144-153 3) Focillon, Henri. (1992:69) The life of Forms in Art :New York. 4) Starobinski, Jean.(1989:116-21) â€Å"The Critical Relation† in The Living Eye, trans.  Ã‚   Arthur Gothammer, Cambridge, 1989. 5) Gorer, Geoffrey. (1935.199) Nobody Talks Politics: A Satire with an Appendix on our Political Intelligentsia : London. 6) Corradini, Enrico. (1924:214-29) â€Å"Nationalismo e socialism†, in Discorsi Politici, Florence. 7) Gregor, James. ( April,1974:370-384) Fascism and Modernization .World Politics, vol.26. No.3. 8) Volpe. (1928). Lo sviluppo storico del fascism , Rome. 9) Turner, Henry, Jr., ( July,1972:547-64) â€Å"Fascism and Modernization†, World Politics, XXIV 10) Maddison, Angus.(1964) Economic Growth in the West. New York.   Appendices A, E, H, I.

The Language of Reality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8000 words

The Language of Reality - Essay Example Beyond elementary semantic structures numerous sub-layers of meaning and communication exist to both enrich and complicate the way in which we interact and express our ideas and emotions. It is not what we say, but how we say it. The world of artificial intelligence and its struggle to embrace the complexities of everyday communication shows just how interdependent language, external cultural foces and the personal realm of experience can be. A simple de-coding or patterning of linguistic structures as we understand them is barely enough to compose the bare bones of the seemingly simple ways in which we communicate. The gap between intention and reception can create a crossfire of miscommunication - where meaning becomes alienated from form and the most intangible aspects of speech are cast into the spotlight. In the theoretical space between intention and reception - where communication can either prosper or become fragmented - lie determinants such as perception and recognition. We therefore largely depend upon these two elements to formulate successful interactions, and to form the fabric of what we perceive as reality - in the sense that we depend upon information to guide, instruct, elucidate and define the world around us. Sayre (1965, p. 177), examines the distinction between perception and recognition - and the roles they play in our understanding and interpretation of the world around us: "According to the theory outlined in Plato "Meno" and Phaedo, acquisition of knowledge is a matter of recollection or recognition. As someone comes to know that about which he has been ignorant, he "cognizes again" .... If I have never seen, been told about, read about or in some other way come to know about gooseberries, then upon seeing a gooseberry for the first time I scarcely could be said to recognize it. The next time I see a gooseberry I probably will recognize it, if not by name then at least as an object of the sort I had seen some time previously. But if the first time one perceives an object is the first time one has ever been cognitively aware of such an object, perforce at that time one does not recognize it. It is commonplace, on the other hand, that we perceive objects which we have never perceived before, nor learned about in any other way." In this understanding of recognition and perception, the act of recognition is, by definition, rooted in the realm of memory and past experience. Memory, it is generally accepted, tends towards subjectivity, embellishment and is often powerfully influenced by the emotions or mindset that were in force at the time when the incident occured. It follows that recognition is unreliable as an objective conduit for accurately conveying intended meaning - as it will always be influenced by a recipient's internalised framework of understanding. In this way, the eventual meaning conveyed by a piece of information is outside of the control of the speaker or communicator from the moment the idea leaves their immediate sphere and enters a communication channel - whether that channel be through the medium of speech, or through a technological pathway such as the internet. Once a piece of information is liberated from the person in possession of its intended meaning - it immediately falls prey to the co-authorship of social context and recipient subjectivity. Caught in a fragmented point of juncture between initial source, external influences and final perception and recognition - a message is defined and understood by a melange of often contradictory 'realities'1 which - by way of their very merger and interconnectedness -